Ancient Olmec Culture

Ancient Olmec Culture The Olmec culture thrived along Mexico’s Gulf Coast from approximately 1200-400 B.C. The first great Mesoamerican culture, it had been in decline for centuries before the arrival of the first Europeans, therefore, much information about the Olmecs has been lost. We know the Olmecs primarily through their art, sculpture, and architecture. Although many mysteries remain, ongoing work by archaeologists, anthropologists, and other researchers has given us something of a glimpse into what Olmec life might have been like. Olmec Food, Crops, and Diet The Olmecs practiced basic agriculture using the slash-and-burn technique, in which overgrown plots of land are burned: this clears them for planting and the ashes act as fertilizer. They planted many of the same crops seen in the region today, such as squash, beans, manioc, sweet potatoes, and tomatoes. Maize was a staple of the Olmec diet, although it is possible that it was introduced late in the development of their culture. Whenever it was introduced, it soon became very important: one of the Olmec Gods is associated with maize. The Olmecs avidly fished from nearby lakes and rivers. Clams, alligators, and various types of fish were an important part of their diet. The Olmecs preferred to make settlements near water, as the floodplains were good for agriculture and fish and shellfish could be had more easily. For meat, they had domestic dogs and the occasional deer. A vital part of the Olmec diet was nixtamal, a special sort of corn meal ground with seashells, lime or ashes, the addition of which greatly enhances the nutritional value of the cornmeal. Olmec Tools In spite of only having Stone Age technology, the Olmecs were able to make several sorts of tools which made their life easier. They used whatever was at hand, such as clay, stone, bone, wood or deer antlers. They were skilled at making ​pottery: vessels and plates used for storing and cooking food. Clay pots and vessels were extremely common among the Olmec: literally, millions of potsherds have been discovered in and around Olmec sites. Tools were mostly made of stone and include basic items such as hammers, wedges, mortar-and-pestles and mano-and-metate grinders used for mashing corn and other grains. Obsidian was not native to the Olmec lands, but when it could be had, it made excellent knives. Olmec Homes The Olmec culture is remembered today in part because it was the first Mesoamerican culture to produce small cities, most notably San Lorenzo and La Venta (their original names are unknown). These cities, which have been extensively investigated by archaeologists, were indeed impressive centers for politics, religion, and culture, but most ordinary Olmecs did not live in them. Most common Olmecs were simple farmers and fishermen who lived in family groups or small villages. Olmec homes were simple affairs: generally, one large building made of earth packed around poles, which served as a sleeping area, dining room, and shelter. Most homes probably had a small garden of herbs and basic foods. Because the Olmecs preferred to live in or near flood plains, they built their homes on small mounds or platforms. They dug holes in their floors to store food. Olmec Towns and Villages Excavations show that smaller villages consisted of a handful of homes, most likely inhabited by family groups. Fruit trees such as zapote or papaya were common in villages. Larger excavated villages often have a central mound of greater size: this would be where the home of a prominent family or local chieftain was built, or perhaps a small shrine to a god whose name is now long-forgotten. The status of the families that made up the village could be discerned by the how far they lived from this town center. In larger towns, more remains of animals such as dog, alligator, and deer have been found than in smaller villages, suggesting that these foods were reserved for local elites. Olmec Religion and Gods The Olmec people had a well-developed religion. According to archaeologist Richard Diehl, there are five aspects of Olmec religion, including a well-defined cosmos, a shaman class, sacred places and sites, identifiable gods and specific rituals and ceremonies. Peter Joralemon, who has studied the Olmecs for years, has identified no fewer than eight gods from surviving Olmec art. Common Olmecs who worked the fields and caught fish in the rivers probably only participated in religious practices as observers, because there was an active priest class and the rulers and ruling family most likely had specific and important religious duties. Many of the Olmec gods, such as the Rain God and Feathered Serpent, would go on to form part of the pantheon of later Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Aztec and Maya. The Olmec also played the ritualistic Mesoamerican ball game. Olmec Art Most of what we know about the Olmec today is due to surviving examples of Olmec art. The most easily recognizable pieces are the massive colossal heads, some of which are nearly ten feet tall. Other forms of Olmec art that have survived include statues, figurines, celts, thrones, wooden busts and cave paintings. The Olmec cities of San Lorenzo and La Venta most likely had an artisan class who worked on these sculptures. Common Olmecs likely produced only useful art such as pottery vessels. Thats not to say that the Olmec artistic output did not affect the common people, however: the boulders used to make the colossal heads and thrones were quarried many miles from the workshops, meaning that thousands of commoners would be pressed into service to move the stones on sledges, rafts, and rollers to where they were needed. Importance of Olmec Culture Understanding the Olmec culture is very important to modern-day researchers and archaeologists. First of all, the Olmec was the mother culture of Mesoamerica, and many aspects of Olmec culture, such as gods, glyphic writing, and artistic forms, became part of later civilizations such as the Maya and Aztecs. Even more importantly, the Olmec were one of only six primary or pristine civilizations in the world, the others being ancient China, Egypt, Sumeria, the Indus of India and the Chavin culture of Peru. Pristine civilizations are those that developed somewhere without any significant influence from previous civilizations. These primary civilizations were forced to develop on their own, and how they developed teaches us a lot about our distant ancestors. Not only are the Olmecs a pristine civilization, they were the only ones to develop in a humid forest environment, making them a special case indeed. The Olmec civilization had gone into decline by 400 B.C. and historians arent exactly sure why. Their decline probably had much to do with wars and climate change. After the Olmec, several clearly post-Olmec societies developed in the Veracruz region. There is much that is still unknown about the Olmecs, including some very important, basic things such as what they called themselves (Olmec is an Aztec word applied to sixteenth-century dwellers in the region). Dedicated researchers are constantly pushing the boundaries of what is known about this mysterious ancient culture, bringing new facts to light and correcting errors previously made. Sources Coe, Michael D. Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs. Ancient Peoples and Places, Rex Koontz, 7th Edition, Thames Hudson, June 14, 2013. Cyphers, Ann. Surgimiento y decadencia de San Lorenzo, Veracruz. Arqueologà ­a Mexicana Vol XV - Num. 87 (Sept-Oct 2007). P. 30-35. Diehl, Richard A. The Olmecs: Americas First Civilization. London: Thames and Hudson, 2004. Grove, David C. Cerros Sagradas Olmecas. Trans. Elisa Ramirez. Arqueologà ­a Mexicana Vol XV - Num. 87 (Sept-Oct 2007). P. 30-35. Miller, Mary and Karl Taube. An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. New York: Thames Hudson, 1993.

Indonesiaâ€History and Geography

Indonesia- History and Geography Indonesia has begun to emerge as an economic power in Southeast Asia, as well as a newly democratic nation. Its long history as the source of spices coveted around the world shaped Indonesia into the multi-ethnic and religiously diverse nation that we see today. Although this diversity causes friction at times, Indonesia has the potential to become a major world power. Capital and Major Cities Capital Jakarta, pop. 9,608,000 Major Cities Surabaya, pop. 3,000,000 Medan, pop. 2,500,000 Bandung, pop. 2,500,000 Serang, pop. 1,786,000 Yogyakarta, pop. 512,000 Government The Republic of Indonesia is centralized (non-federal) and features a strong President who is both Head of State and Head of Government. The first direct presidential election took place only in 2004; the president can serve up to two 5-year terms. The tricameral legislature consists of the Peoples Consultative Assembly, which inaugurates and impeaches the president and amends the constitution but does not consider legislation; the 560-member House of Representatives, which creates legislation; and the 132-member House of Regional Representatives who provide input on legislation that affects their regions. The judiciary includes not only a Supreme Court and Constitutional Court but also a designated Anti-Corruption Court. Population Indonesia is home to over 258 million people. It is the fourth most populous nation on Earth (after China, India and the US). Indonesians belong to more than 300 ethnolinguistic groups, most of which are Austronesian in origin. The largest ethnic group is the Javanese, at almost 42% of the population, followed by the Sundanese with just over 15%. Others with more than 2 million members each include: Chinese (3.7%), Malay (3.4%), Madurese (3.3%), Batak (3.0%), Minangkabau (2.7%), Betawi (2.5%), Buginese (2.5%), Bantenese (2.1%), Banjarese (1.7%), Balinese (1.5%) and Sasak (1.3%). Languages of Indonesia Across Indonesia, people speak the official national language of Indonesian, which was created after independence as a lingua franca from Malay roots. However, there are more than 700 other languages in active use throughout the archipelago, and few Indonesians speak the national language as their mother tongue. Javanese is the most popular first language, boasting 84 million speakers. It is followed by Sundanese and Madurese, with 34 and 14 million speakers, respectively. The written forms of Indonesias multitude of languages may be rendered in modified Sanskrit, Arabic or Latin writing systems. Religion Indonesia is the worlds largest Muslim country, with 86% of the population professing Islam. In addition, almost 9% of the population is Christian, 2% are Hindu, and 3% are Buddhist or animist. Nearly all of the Hindu Indonesians live on the island of Bali; most of the Buddhists are ethnic Chinese. The Constitution of Indonesia guarantees freedom of worship, but the state ideology specifies a belief in only one God. Long a commercial hub, Indonesia acquired these faiths from traders and colonizers. Buddhism and Hinduism came from Indian merchants; Islam arrived via Arab and Gujarati traders. Later, the Portuguese introduced Catholicism and the Dutch Protestantism. Geography With more than 17,500 islands, of which more than 150 are active volcanoes, Indonesia is one of the most geographically and geologically interesting countries on Earth. It was the site of two famous nineteenth-century eruptions, those of Tambora and Krakatau, as well as being the epicenter of the 2004 Southeast Asian tsunami. Indonesia covers about 1,919,000 square kilometers (741,000 square miles). It shares land borders with Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, and East Timor. The highest point in Indonesia is Puncak Jaya, at 5,030 meters (16,502 feet); the lowest point is sea level. Climate Indonesias climate is tropical and monsoonal, although the high mountain peaks can be quite cool. The year is divided into two seasons, the wet and the dry. Because Indonesia sits astride the equator, temperatures do not vary much from month to month. For the most part, coastal areas see temperatures in the mid to upper 20s Celsius (the low to mid-80s Fahrenheit) throughout the year. Economy Indonesia is the economic powerhouse of Southeast Asia, a member of the G20 group of economies. Although it is a market economy, the government owns significant amounts of the industrial base following the 1997 Asian financial crisis. During the 2008-2009 global financial crisis, Indonesia was one of the few nations to continue its economic growth. Indonesia exports petroleum products, appliances, textiles, and rubber. It imports chemicals, machinery, and food. The per capita GDP is about $10,700 US (2015). Unemployment is only 5.9% as of 2014; 43% of Indonesians work in industry, 43% in services, and 14% in agriculture. Nonetheless, 11% live below the poverty line. History of Indonesia Human history in Indonesia goes back at least 1.5-1.8 million years, as shown by the fossil Java Man - a Homo erectus individual discovered in 1891. Archaeological evidence suggests that Homo sapiens had walked across Pleistocene land bridges from the mainland by 45,000 years ago. They may have encountered another human species, the hobbits of the island of Flores; the exact taxonomic placement of the diminutive Homo floresiensis is still up for debate. Flores Man seems to have become extinct by 10,000 years ago. The ancestors of most modern Indonesians reached the archipelago around 4,000 years ago, arriving from Taiwan, according to DNA studies. Melanesian peoples already inhabited Indonesia, but they were displaced by the arriving Austronesians across much of the archipelago. Early Indonesia Hindu kingdoms sprang up on Java and Sumatra as early as 300 BCE, under the influence of traders from India. By the early centuries CE, Buddhist rulers controlled areas of those same islands, as well. Not much is known about these early kingdoms, due to the difficulty of access for international archaeological teams. In the 7th century, the powerful Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya arose on Sumatra. It controlled much of Indonesia until 1290 when it was conquered by the Hindu Majapahit Empire from Java. Majapahit (1290-1527) united most of modern-day Indonesia and Malaysia. Although large in size, Majapahit was more interested in controlling trade routes than in territorial gains. Meanwhile, Islamic traders introduced their faith to Indonesians in the trade ports around the 11th century. Islam slowly spread throughout Java and Sumatra, although Bali remained majority Hindu. In Malacca, a Muslim sultanate ruled from 1414 until it was conquered by the Portuguese in 1511. Colonial Indonesia The Portuguese took control of parts of Indonesia in the sixteenth century but did not have enough power to hang on to their colonies there when the much wealthier Dutch decided to muscle in on the spice trade beginning in 1602. Portugal was confined to East Timor. Nationalism and Independence Throughout the early 20th century, nationalism grew in the Dutch East Indies. In March of 1942, the Japanese occupied Indonesia, expelling the Dutch. Initially welcomed as liberators, the Japanese were brutal and oppressive, catalyzing nationalist sentiment in Indonesia. After Japans defeat in 1945, the Dutch tried to return to their most valuable colony. The people of Indonesia launched a four-year independence war, gaining full freedom in 1949 with U.N. help. The first two presidents of Indonesia, Sukarno (r. 1945-1967) and Suharto (r. 1967-1998) were autocrats who relied upon the military to stay in power. Since 2000, however, Indonesias president s  have been selected through reasonably free and fair elections.

Select two approaches to counselling which might be useful in Essay

Select two approaches to counselling which might be useful in education, and describe their assumptions and methods. Critically discuss their relevance and suitability for counselling in schools - Essay Example A theoretical approach presents a position that regards the theory and practice of counselling. A school of counselling can be viewed as a grouping of different theoretical approaches, which are similar to each other in terms of fundamental characteristics, which distinguishes them from theoretical approaches in counselling schools. The three main schools, which influence psychotherapy practice and contemporary counselling are usually separated into three overlapping and distinct traditions or schools of theoretical approach that have informed the practice of counselling. They are the humanistic school, the psychodynamic school and the cognitive/behavioral school (Greig, 2007). The humanistic/existential school has its roots in the works of pioneers such as Rogers, Moreno, Maslow, Berne, Binswanger, May, Perls and Boss characterized by a belief in self-actualization and choice. The humanistic school sometimes incorporate existential approach hence gets the broader title humanistic-existential school. It is based on humanism, a system of beliefs and values which emphasizes the better qualities of human beings and individuals’ abilities to develop their human potential. The humanistic counselors often emphasize enhancing clients’ abilities to reason and behave in harmony with their underlying habits to actualize themselves as unique characters. Describing humanistic/existential approach to the development of mental disorders is a considerable challenge. Humanistic approaches in many aspects are philosophical in nature, speak to the nature of the individual’s condition, deal with values and prefer a holistic view of the person. The humanistic/existential approaches evolved as a reaction to the determinism of the early models of psychopathology. Many psychologists were disturbed that Freudian theory did not touch on the inner world of the client but categorized the client according to preconceived diagnoses. They described a client in terms of psychic

Introduction to International Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Introduction to International Business - Essay Example International trade and world output Free international trade facilitates the countries to specialize in the manufacture of the different goods based on the comparative cost advantage and the economies of scale due to various factors such as favorable climatic conditions, availability of raw materials, manpower and geographical location. The markets would be efficient on the global scale if there is free trade and there are no restrictions placed by the governments on the movement of goods by way of customs duties, taxes and quotas. When the world is moving towards this ideal situation, on its way the efficiency in the global markets will result into increased world output, depending upon the progress. However, various factors such as the need for protecting the agriculture and local industries, the goal of self-sufficiency, balance of payments situation and phase of the economic development of the country dictates the policies to be pursued by the governments. The world output is re lated to international trade, and for example during the times of depression, trade will contract on account of reduction in spending in general by the consumers, consequently the world output; and the revival in consumer spending will emerge when the consumer confidence increases once the recessionary pressures are over. However, the disadvantages due to poor infrastructure have an adverse impact on the economic development in the developing and the underdeveloped countries, and consequently on the international trade. Rich (1992, P. 10) states that there is the problem of the emerging and developing countries who confront the advanced countries with the disadvantage of lacking sufficient  industry and infrastructure to compete, yet competition is the means by which  they can develop their industrial basis and gain the technology for raising their  standards of living.    2. Broad pattern of international trade underpin There are several models for predicting the patterns o f trade. For example, comparative advantage which leads to specialization is based on the theory propounded by David Recardo. However, this Ricardian model of comparative advantage could be neutralized by several factors such as transportation costs and trade costs. Also, the increase in one or more of the components of the cost over a period of time could act as a barrier. Moreover, monetary policies pursued by the government takes into account the factors such as the overall balance of payment position, interest rates and inflation which may have a bearing on the comparative advantage (or disadvantage). This theory is also criticized on account of its assumption about the labor as the critical input. Also, the comparative advantage could be vitiated by the protectionist measures of the other countries. Theories such as ‘New Trade Theory’ and ‘Gravity model of trade’ are based on empirical analysis compared to the earlier theoretical models. The continuous shift in comparative advantage with reference to various products makes the international trade very dynamic and the pattern and the  basis for the balance of trade in goods and services  undergo changes over the period of time. Proudman and Redding (1998, p. 19) state: Theoretical models of growth and trade suggest that patterns of international specialisation are inherently dynamic and evolve endogenously over time. Economic theory pin-points some forces that leads to

Male and Female Roles in Society Essay Example for Free

Male and Female Roles in Society Essay Mozart Beethoven Within the classical style of music stand two well-known, well-versed composers: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven. Both men were crucial, influential figures in the Classical era of music and composed works that are still held with great praise and dignity over 200 years later. To passive listeners, Mozart and Beethoven are very similar in their style and compositions. Although similarities do exist, their music and personal lives differed, most appropriately due to the periods in which they became famous. Mozart, considered the best and most successful composer of the Classical era, began his work at a time when classical music was prominent. Beethoven, meanwhile, was successful during the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras. Although hes considered an influential figure of the Classical era, he is also credited with developing a new style and pushing the boundaries of classical music. Because Beethoven was born when Mozart began composing his early successful works he was able to take advantage of learning and studying classical music when it was at its best. Both composers were born into highly-musical families. Their fathers were their first teachers who considered their sons musical prodigies. Sonically, their works were quite different. Its often said that Beethoven stands out more than Mozart in classical music, that his compositions are more complex are more in touch with personality and emotion. At the same time, it could be said that Mozart was ahead of his time. Beethoven borrowed many ideas from numerous composers before him, including Mozart; in adding his own touch he made his works loved then and now

The Extreme Right in Britain Essay -- Political Politics

The Extreme Right in Britain Introduction Perhaps, one of the highly debated issues in the electoral procedures of different European nations is about the extreme right. Based on the premise that the nation is the primary unit of social and political organization, extremist nationalism has been revived since the demise of communism. Unlike civic nationalism, which stresses equality and solidarity, the exaggerated, chauvinistic, and aggressive nationalism of the extreme right upholds the significance of the nation and national identity against any other value. Each person is defined by membership in ancient ethnic and cultural groups that are hierarchically arranged according to the "natural order." In the extreme rights’ view, violating this natural order through racial combination leads to corruption in society. Consequently, the extreme right portrays itself as the defender of the nation, protecting society's integrity and purity from the onslaught of foreigners and unwanted change. Therefore, national identity subordinates all other identifications; it divides good from evil and friend from enemy. It is a source of pride that right-wing extremists feel has been denied them by the state and liberals. The resurgence of extreme right parties gained its first sudden and dramatic momentum when the Front National (FN), led by Jean-Marie LePen, scored 11.2 percent in the 1984 European elections. This took many by surprise, including political and social scientists, most of whom at the time had expected rightist extremism to disperse altogether. Indeed, until the mid-1980s, the organized extreme right remained completely marginalized in Europe, enjoyed little political support, and performed poorly in elections. Even mor... ... as Compared with Previous Ones. Jerusalem, 1996. Hainsworth, P. â€Å"The Extreme Right† In Politics of the Extreme Right: From the Margins to the Mainstream. London, 2000. Heath, A. â€Å"What has happened to the extreme Right in Britain. Working Paper, 23, 1993. Ignazi, P. Extreme Right parties in Western Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Margetts, H. John, P. Weir, S. Latent Support for the far-Right in British Politics: The BP and UKIP in the 2004 European and London Elections. Paper Presented to PSA EPOP conference: University of Oxford, 2004. Rensmann, L. â€Å"The New Politics of Prejudice; Comparative Perspectives on Extreme Right Parties in European democracies†. German Politics and Society, 21:4 (2003). Taguieff, P.A. "The New Cultural Racism in France". Telos, 83: Spring (1990) Walker, M. The National Front. Fontana Collins: Glasgow, 1978.

Biological Behavior

Biological Criminal Behavior CJA/314 December 12, 2011 Biological Criminal Behavior Significant genetic and psychological evidence exists that supports the notion that biology played a role in explaining Mr. Hinckley’s crime of the attempted assignation of President Ronald Reagan by in 1981, including seriously injuring to three other people. According to Schmalleger (2012), â€Å"The shape of a person’s skull corresponds to the shape of the underlying brain and is therefore indicative of the personality, (p. 9). Because of the actions of John Hinckley Congress enacted changes to the law that affected the way defense attorneys used the insanity defense in order to protect their clients in court due to concerns that some defendants had no metal disorders, and others were classified as having personality disorders. Those who support the mens rea approach argue that if the courts had considered Hinckley’s mental culpability he would have likely been found guilty be cause they claim he was clear about his intentions. The notes Hinckley left for film star Jodie Foster showed how disturbed he was. John Hinckley reportedly admitted that he was fantasizing about the life of a character in a famous movie. This article went on to explain that Hinckley suffered from other physical ailments that caused significant weight gain and also required prescriptions such as Valium, antidepressants, and antihistamines. In addition, â€Å"At his trial the defense successfully won a battle to introduce a CAT-scan test showing the widened suici of the brain found, according to one defense psychiatrist, in one of three schizophrenics† (Carrithers, 1985, p. 24, para 7). During Hinckley’s trial the prosecution and defense both argued that he suffered from clinical issues such as paranoid personality disorder, depressive neurosis, process schizophrenia, or dysthymic disorder. The legislation passed by Congress relating to Hinckley’s insanity plea was aimed at protecting the rights of the mentally ill and of society. Now the defense has to prove that their client is psychotic, but are not mad creatures if they want to claim insanity. Incredibly, John Hinckley was recently in the news because the courts are currently contemplating about whether or not to release him into the custody of his mother who is elderly. Evidently the issue was serious enough for the federal government to get involved. For example, â€Å"Earlier this year U. S. Secret Service agents observed John Hinckley Jr. the man who shot President Ronald Reagan and three other men in a 1981 assassination attempt,   go to a bookstore to read about President Reagan and presidential assassinations (ABC, 2011, p. 1, para 1). References ABC. (2011). Blogs. Retrieved from, http://abcnews. go. com/blogs/politics/2011/11/prosecutors-argue-against-john-hinckley-jr-release/ Carrithers, D. W. (1985). The Insanity Defense and Presidential Peril. Society, 22(5), 23-27. Schmalleger, F. (2012). Criminology today: An interactive introduction. (6th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.